Final Exam Prep Questions

1) The term direct in correspondence implies A. the volume at which a message is gotten B. the setting of the correspondence C. the way toward changing contemplations into images D. the medium through which a message makes a trip from sender to collector 2) wherein of the accompanying correspondence exercises do individuals spend the best percent of their day? A. Listening B. Composing C. Understanding D. Talking 3) A receiver’s reaction to a sender’s message is known as A. encoding B. unraveling C. criticism D. channel 4) With this kind of reaction, you break down or show the sender the reason for their concern.A. Assessing B. Deciphering C. Summarizing D. Addressing 5) This happens when you get, develop significance from, and react to the sender’s message. A. Hearing B. Going to C. Listening D. Reacting 6) When the recipient utilizes this reaction style, he explains or looks for more data. A. Assessing B. Supporting C. Rewording D. Addressing 7) Which of coming up next are the most widely recognized sorts of questions individuals may have about a source? A. Status and scholastic degree B. Occupation and manager C. Conspicuousness in the field of study and experience D. Skill and exactness ) Which of coming up next is the most dependable wellspring of data? A. Wikipediaâ ® B. A blog C. A book suggested by your teacher D. Britannica Onlineâ ® BCOM 275 Final Exam 9) Consider the accompanying trade: â€Å"How do I realize God exists? How would you know he doesn’t? † Which paradox does the subsequent explanation show? A. Stickler false notion B. Tricky slant C. Losing the weight of evidence D. Irregularity slanderous 10) Stating somebody has negative highlights and his case is invalid is a case of which false notion? A. Dirty pool B. Hereditary false notion C. Misrepresentation D. Bogus predicament Highlight Article Fin 486 Final Exam11) Consider the accompanying articulation: â€Å"So imagine a scenario where the Senator acknowledged a little payoff moneyâ€most lawmakers are degenerate all things considered. † This is a case of which false notion? A. Contention from begrudge B. Contention from convention C. Contention from regular practice D. Misrepresentation BCOM275 Final Exam 12) Consider the accompanying articulation: â€Å"Studies affirm what everybody definitely knows: Smaller class sizes improve students. † This is a case of which false notion? A. Contention from basic practice B. Making one wonder C. Losing the weight of evidence D.Slippery incline 13) Audience investigation ought to happen when in the production of a message? A. When criticism is gotten B. Before the message is sent C. Before the message is made D. Subsequent to choosing the channel 14) Behavior depictions should meet which of the accompanying measures? A. Present derivations about an other’s thought processes. B. Depict just perceptible practices. C. Incorporate terms, for example, â€Å"never, consistently, or continually. † D. Concentrate on more than one conduct. 15) A viable message ought to be A. theme based B. crowd focused C. time-focused D. channel-centered 6) Which casual correspondence channel includes its own shortenings to oblige the set number of characters accessible in some random message? A. Email B. Instant message C. Phone message D. Manually written letters 17) Sound and light waves are a case of which part of the correspondence model? A. Encoding B. Channel C. Commotion D. Translating 18) In this channel of correspondence, messages are conveyed by sound and light waves. A. Video chat B. Voice message C. Printed version updates D. Up close and personal 19) A structure for putting the entirety of your data together in a sensible grouping is known as A. a presentation B. a proposition C. focal thought D. a blueprint 20) Which verba l help separates complex procedures or ideas into their segment parts to guarantee understanding? A. Examinations B. Investigations C. Depictions D. Definitions 21) What kind of language is utilized when speaking with schoolmates, colleagues, family, and companions? A. Official B. Casual C. Formal D. Stylized 22) The implication of words, for example, thin or slight spotlights on the A. genuine importance B. denotative importance C. enthusiastic significance D. logical importance 23) If you attempt to convince your cohorts to give canned products for the hungry in your locale, your theme is one of A. olicy B. certainty C. esteem D. emotion 24) Persuasive subjects that endeavor to show a group of people that something is acceptable, terrible, right, or wrong are subjects of A. cause-impact B. truth C. esteem D. strategy 25) If you utilize just a couple of guides to speak to the entire of the end, you are submitting this intelligent misrepresentation. A. Either/or thinking B. Tricky i ncline C. Broken causation D. Hurried speculation 26) What consistent false notion can happen when a speaker centers around likenesses and disregards noteworthy contrasts? A. Either/or thinking B. Hurried speculation C. Broken correlation D. Elusive slant 7) When you show ethos in your influential introduction, you have A. believability B. feeling C. proof D. rationale 28) Developing multifaceted skill incorporates which of the accompanying? A. Defeating individual inclinations B. Strolling on eggs C. Isolating society from correspondence D. Utilizing hot catch words 29) An endeavor to portray reasons for occasions to either characters or outside circumstances is known as A. projection B. specific consideration C. attribution blunder D. radiance impact 30) Groups that esteem higher force separation accept connections are A. nonconformist B. casual C. progressive D. elationship arranged 31) What is the conviction that laws are supported on the off chance that they keep an individual from hurting oneself known as? A. Offense rule B. Lawful moralism C. Damage rule D. Legitimate paternalism 32) What is the conviction that right good standards are those acknowledged by the right religion known as? A. Strict absolutism B. Uprightness morals C. Strict relativism D. Moral relativism 33) The act of utilizing a case that has just been chosen as a guide when choosing new cases is alluded to as A. legitimate profound quality B. lawful paternalism C. causation guideline D. bid to point of reference

The Donahue Study Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

The Donahue Study - Research Paper Example These strengthening structures reinforce the people capacity to achieve things inside an association. This hypothesis was initially intended to be applied to the business domain, yet was applied in a few examinations to medicinal services. Laschinger’s reasonable model is the hypothetical system applied to nursing which was situated in Kanter’s hypothesis fills in as the hypothetical structure for this investigation. The autonomous variable in the examination is medical caretakers strengthening and the reliant variable shows restraint fulfillment. These factors are both obviously characterized. 5. The audit of the writing is clear and important. The creators audit Laschinger’s idea of strengthening just as Chandler’s Conditions of Work Effectiveness Questionnaire, and disclose how the identify with the momentum study and research techniques. Both of these investigations have a reasonable connection to the present examination, and an intelligent clarification for this is given. 7. The example size utilized is sufficient, yet is just taken from a solitary populaces. The outcomes may not be characteristic of everybody, in light of the fact that the example is from just a single network. The outcomes just incorporate medical caretakers who decided to react to the poll, so the technique itself presents inclination. 8. Instruments-The instruments utilized were characterized by the creators as follows: Nurse strengthening was estimated utilizing the Conditions of Work Effectiveness Questionnaire II (CWEQ-II). The CWEQ-II is an abbreviated rendition of the CWEQ, which wasadapted by Chandler in 1986 for use in nursing populaces. The CWEQ-II comprises of 19 things that measure the six segments of strengthening portrayed by Kanter (pg. 3). 9. Morals Rights of study members were obviously tended to in the article. The examination included just negligible hazard to members. They didn't include methodology which require composed assent, and endorsements from the audit board were

Individual Assignment Free Essays

Singular Assignment Topic: Apply your understandings of budget summaries, working capital administration, money related wanting to distinguish, break down, and propose answers for the issues introduced in â€Å"Clarkson Lumber Company† case. Necessities: * Answer all the rule questions. Bolster your answer with essential figurings, conjectures, analysis†¦ * Summarize the issues and propose answers for â€Å"Clarkson Lumber Company† dependent on your answers and investigation of the rule questions. We will compose a custom paper test on Singular Assignment or on the other hand any comparable subject just for you Request Now Appraisals: * This is an individual task. Despite the fact that you are urged to talk about the case with your speaker and individual understudies, you are required to compose the report all alone. Any proof of unoriginalities will bring about an exclusion. * Your absolute score is 100 pts (answers to the rule addresses 60 pts, outline of the issues 10 pts, and proposed arrangement 30 pts) * Format: use Arial 11; 1. 15 line separating. * Deadline: March 31st, 2013 Rule questions: 1. Why has Clarkson Lumber acquired expanding sums regardless of its predictable benefit? (5 pts) 2. How has Mr. Clarkson met the financing needs of the organization during the period 1993 through 1995? Has the monetary quality of Clarkson Lumber improved or weakened? (15 pts) 3. How appealing is it to take the exchange limits? (10 pts) 4. Do you concur with Mr. Clarkson’s gauge of the company’s advance necessities? How much will he have to back the normal development in deals to $5. 5 million out of 1996 and to take all exchange limits? (15 pts) 5. As Mr. Clarkson’s monetary consultant, okay urge him to proceed with, or to reevaluate, his foreseen development and his arrangements for extra obligation financing? As the broker, would you endorse Mr. Clarkson’s advance solicitation, and provided that this is true, what conditions would you put on the credit? (15 pts) The most effective method to refer to Individual Assignment, Papers Singular Assignment Free Essays Singular Assignment Topic: Apply your understandings of budget summaries, working capital administration, money related intending to distinguish, investigate, and propose answers for the issues introduced in â€Å"Clarkson Lumber Company† case. Necessities: * Answer all the rule questions. Bolster your answer with important computations, figures, analysis†¦ * Summarize the issues and propose answers for â€Å"Clarkson Lumber Company† dependent on your answers and investigation of the rule questions. We will compose a custom paper test on Singular Assignment or on the other hand any comparable subject just for you Request Now Appraisals: * This is an individual task. Despite the fact that you are urged to examine the case with your instructor and individual understudies, you are required to compose the report all alone. Any proof of copyright infringements will bring about a preclusion. * Your all out score is 100 pts (answers to the rule addresses 60 pts, rundown of the issues 10 pts, and proposed arrangement 30 pts) * Format: use Arial 11; 1. 15 line dispersing. * Deadline: March 31st, 2013 Rule questions: 1. Why has Clarkson Lumber obtained expanding sums notwithstanding its predictable productivity? (5 pts) 2. How has Mr. Clarkson met the financing needs of the organization during the period 1993 through 1995? Has the monetary quality of Clarkson Lumber improved or weakened? (15 pts) 3. How alluring is it to take the exchange limits? (10 pts) 4. Do you concur with Mr. Clarkson’s gauge of the company’s credit prerequisites? How much will he have to fund the normal development in deals to $5. 5 million of every 1996 and to take all exchange limits? (15 pts) 5. As Mr. Clarkson’s money related counselor, OK ask him to proceed with, or to rethink, his foreseen extension and his arrangements for extra obligation financing? As the broker, would you affirm Mr. Clarkson’s credit demand, and provided that this is true, what conditions would you put on the advance? (15 pts) Step by step instructions to refer to Individual Assignment, Essay models Singular Assignment Free Essays Likewise, we had investigated the various information stream that would capacity and Improve the best possible taking care of among Ordain and their plants, and which would guarantee the best connection between every office. It would Improve the correspondence In Ordain Manufacturing and, along these lines. Set aside time and cash after it is at long last actualized. We will compose a custom exposition test on Singular Assignment or then again any comparative theme just for you Request Now Security Controls Security and secure methods of working together ought to consistently be a generally level of worry in any task. Security Is basically dealt with and overseen by the tasks gathering, which is a similar staff that is liable for working in introducing security introductions and capacities, for example, Intrusion Protection Systems, Intrusion Detection Systems, firewalls, and recuperation and routine reinforcement activities. However, this framework designers likewise share duty with regards to security, particularly when it’s inside the IT and data frameworks. The application engineering ought to be run on Linux/Null-based server or Windows 7 Server Edition. Any extra programming or projects that would later be required could be modified in-house as an improvement venture. Interfaces: â€Å"Interface configuration is the way toward characterizing how the framework will cooperate with outside elements, e. G. Clients, providers, other systems† (Dennis, Wisdom, ; Roth, 2009). Framework interfaces require a significant level of security since they are well fit for trading distinctive data with other data frameworks. Secret phrase prerequisites can accomplish a significant level of security without anyone else, and are viewed as secure techniques to oversee representative records, private and certain archives, or organization charge records. Secret key necessities likewise help forestall inward security dangers, similar to representatives attempting to get to another employee’s PC. System: one proposal this specialist has is consolidating a database that is went with and would be open just through a PLAN (Virtual Local Area Network). This permits a confided in representative to refresh, see, and alter if fundamental some essential level data that would be dependent upon affirmation predisposition director or other finance assistant. Access, for example, this would require the utilization of a secret phrase and family name for security strategies. Additionally, techniques for security that would be of a most level would be the three factor confirmation strategy, which would be: last name with secret phrase and furthermore a unique mark filter. Likewise, the outsider associations that handle Radian’s employee’s benefits, similar to their laborers pay and wellbeing vast, ought to be evaluated each year with the end goal of com altered this and precision, and this would likewise guarantee the most right procedures inside Ordain. Physical Data Flow Diagrams Implementation plans and choices portray how a data framework will function, and one needs to realize this before structuring application rationale of the data framework. The physical information stream charts of this data would show all the subtleties including, however not restricted to, the information stores that allude to the database tables and the documents, the human activities or projects that play out the procedures, just as he physical exchange media for those information streams. On the off chance that one keeps up a legitimate in clear usage, it will consistently offer the types of assistance that you will expect with complete and precise outcomes. Appoint needs to determine the extra issues with respect to the execution and procedures of the last changes, at the earliest opportunity. There will be a gathering one week from now to talk about this very issue, and this creator will function as hard as conceivable to guarantee that this organizations needs will be fulfilled and met, and in secure and safe way too. End It has been appeared, by the information stream outlines just as the premise of this report, whatever issues had tormented the Human Resources Department, it tends to be fixed References Systems Analysis and Design, fourth Edition. Step by step instructions to refer to Individual Assignment, Papers Singular task Free Essays This task is to be done independently. This implies you are required to address the inquiries in the task all alone. The motivation behind the task is to assist you with getting progressively acquainted with valuing choices, utilizing an explicitly planned bit of programming. We will compose a custom article test on Singular task or on the other hand any comparable point just for you Request Now The estimating of alternatives is an exceptionally specialized zone, and the greater part of us don't have the specialized ability to value choices from first principals. In this manner in your working lives, in the event that you do need to value choices, at that point it will in all likelihood be accomplished for you through programming. The product we will utilize is called ‘Derivable’, which has been explicitly created for the Hull et al (2014) course reading. You can download the product from the Model unit webpage under the ‘Additional Resources’ segment. Programming Installation guidelines for the Derivable programming are very straight forward. It would be ideal if you follow these straightforward advances. Stage 1 . Go to the BIFF 5 Model webpage, under ‘Additional Resources’ Section, click on the Derivable programming and download the record ‘Derivable. Zip’. Stage 2. Double tap on the Derivable. IP document to raise the Winzip utility program. Stage 3. In the Winzip utility program, on the ‘Home’ tab, there ought to be a catch marked ‘I-click Unzip’. Push on the ‘I-click Unzip’ button. The compacted documents registries and envelopes should then be separate. Once Winzip has finished the extraction, at that point close the Winzip program. Stage 4. There should now be an envelope in your index named ‘Derivable’. Drill down th

The effects of having a Facebook profile Free Essays

Facebook. com was made in 2004 and has immediately become a school wonder. Of late, it has changed from a little Harvard understudies just task into a select 600 million clients solid social entrance, offering a window into the people’s lives. We will compose a custom article test on The impacts of having a Facebook profile or on the other hand any comparable point just for you Request Now Facebook, on its most essential level, reclassifies long range interpersonal communication and permits clients to make and keep up virtual profiles that contain individual, scholarly and contact data. From numerous points of view, Facebook has affected on the public activity and movement of individuals. The most widely recognized impacts of having a Facebook profile are the absence of security, getting into habit and ignoring the genuine, public activity. In any case, one of the significant impacts of utilizing Facebook is the absence of security. Facebook’s profiles are loaded with individual data like what people's identity is, the place accomplish they work, what is their preferred music, film or book. What religion and political convictions are they. Additionally, there is likewise data where do individuals live and study. Individuals share quite a bit of security, with their companions, however with outsiders also. Clients transfer their photographs, let others to remember them, subsequently let others to realize where do they gathering or who do they meet. Not coincidentally individuals state â€Å"Show me your Facebook profile and I will let you know, who you are†. Another impact of having a Facebook profile is an issue of dependence on the informal community. Without a doubt, individuals wake up on a Saturday morning with some espresso, stroking their faculties and loosening up their minds. Sitting at their work area and perusing on Facebook. They have 20 new warnings since the earlier night, a couple of gathering solicitations, a recommended page, 5 companion demands, not many of which are obscure people. In addition, they do it regular, invest significant energy talking, looking, jabbing individuals on Facebook. They stay inside, stopped to the web, attempt to keep in contact with the news. Regardless of whether they understand it or not, Facebook is a genuine piece of their lives, a genuine accomplice that they see for salutation and kiss for goodbye. The to wrap things up impact of having a Facebook profile is dismissing the genuine, public activity. As a matter of first importance, it is very simple to get one of numerous who have virtual connections and before individuals acknowledge it, they begin to treat Facebook as their ordinary social world. This, regularly brings about a dread of genuine gatherings, as individuals who type a million words on the web, can think that its hard to communicate them-selves, all things considered. In addition, it is extremely regular that individuals include different clients of Facebook as their companions, scarcely knowing them and they claim to have a great deal of companions, when truth be told, they know only not many of them, all things considered. To summarize, Facebook is turning out to be increasingly famous, virtual, immense social machine. Be that as it may, life is to live and there are thousand of things sitting tight for individuals in the reality, all things considered, they despite everything choose to live on a Facebook profile which firmly influences their lives. The significant impacts of having a Facebook profile are the absence of protection, getting into enslavement and dismissing the genuine, public activity. The most effective method to refer with The impacts of having a Facebook profile, Papers

Applying to SIPA Consider the 2016 PPIA Fellowship, too COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY - SIPA Admissions Blog

Applying to SIPA Consider the 2016 PPIA Fellowship, too COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY - SIPA Admissions Blog About the Fellowship The PPIA program prepares undergraduates to be competitive candidates for top degree programs in the fields of public policy, public administration or international affairs through participation in a Junior Summer Institute (JSI). JSI is an intensive, 7-week, academic program during the summer at one of these host campuses: The Ford School University of Michigan The Goldman School UC Berkeley Heinz College Carnegie Mellon University Woodrow Wilson School Princeton University Benefits of Participation Full tuition at a PPIA Junior Summer Institute. Eligibility to receive assistance with travel expenses. A stipend of up to $1,500 (funding determined by each JSI). University housing with a meal plan. Books and related course materials at your JSI. Each JSI may offer additional benefits, such as GRE preparation, at their discretion. Please check with each JSI about any additional benefits. Minimum of a one-time $5,000 scholarship at a PPIA graduate school if admitted for a Masters degree or select PhD programs. PPIA Fellows often receive financial offers above and beyond this minimum from their graduate program. Fee waiver when applying to programs that are members of the PPIA Graduate School Consortium. (If youre awarded the PPIA Fellowship, SIPA will waive your application fee when you apply.) Eligible candidates are current undergrads who will be completing their B.A. between December 2016 and August 2017. The deadline to apply is November 1, 2015. Learn more. Apply here.

2015 Secondary Essay Tips University of Pittsburgh Medical School

UPSOM places special emphasis on their collaborative problem-based curriculum and the fact that their medical students begin interacting with patients in their first year of medical school.   Providing the best care to patients through research, education, leadership and diversity is central to their mission.   In your own background, how can you demonstrate your commitment to service?   Have you experienced the patient side of medicine yourself or through family members?   How have these unique life experiences and the communities you have served contributed to your unique development and identity? University of Pittsburgh 2015 Secondary Application Essay Questions: Two short essays with 250 word limits are required. Applicants should use single line spacing and 12 point size font. Responses should be constructed strategically to highlight all of an applicant’s strengths and how they relate to the mission and values of UPSOM. Application Tip: Check out the UPSOM admissions committee procedures and criteria: The following are required in the Secondary Application: 1. Tell us about a challenging problem you faced and how you resolved it. (Limit your response to 250 words or less.) Given UPSOM’s focus on one-on-one patient interactions, use an experience in which you were able to resolve a professional conflict.   Emphasize the role that you played in finding a solution and the skills you employed to identify and implement a positive outcome that was mutually beneficial for all parties involved.   I recommend using an issue that has a clear positive resolution and one that is not personal in nature.   2. UPSOM is a culturally diverse and talented community. How would you enrich/enliven the UPSOM community? The essay should discuss material that is not included in the rest of your application. (Limit your response to 250 words or less.) To best address this essay, take your time to make a long list of your unique qualities, talents and experiences—the longer the better.   Cross out those items that you have already included in your personal statement.   Identify your top three on the list—as they relate to UPSOM’s mission and goals.   Explain how those three identifiers will allow you to connect with the community and how they represent you an individual.  Ã‚  Ã‚   UPSOM Application Timeline: AMCAS Application Due October 15, 2014 Supplemental  Application *November 15, 2014 (Strong recommendation: Submit within two weeks after receipt.) Interviews Concluded Mid-December 2014 If you would like professional guidance with your University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine application materials, please consider using Accepted’s Medical School Admissions Consulting and Editing Services, which include advising, editing, and interview coaching for the UPSOM application materials. Alicia McNease Nimonkar is an Accepted.com advisor and editor specializing in healthcare admissions. Prior to joining Accepted, Alicia worked for five years as Student Advisor at UC Davis’ postbac program where she both evaluated applications and advised students applying successfully to med school and related programs.

High Crimes and Misdemeanors in Impeachment

â€Å"High Crimes and Misdemeanors† is the rather ambiguous phrase most often cited as grounds for the impeachment of U.S. federal government officials, including the President of the United States. What are High Crimes and Misdemeanors? Background Article II, Section 4 of the U.S. Constitution provides that, â€Å"The President, Vice President and all civil Officers of the United States, shall be removed from Office on Impeachment for, and Conviction of, Treason, Bribery, or other high Crimes and Misdemeanors.† The Constitution also provides the steps of the impeachment process leading to the possible removal from office of the president, vice president, federal judges, and other federal officials. Briefly, the impeachment process is initiated in the House of Representatives and follows these steps: The House Judiciary Committee considers evidence, holds hearings, and if necessary, prepares articles of impeachment – the actual charges against the official.If a majority of the Judiciary Committee votes to approve the articles of impeachment, the full House debates and votes on them.If a simple majority of the House votes to impeach the official on any or all of the articles of impeachment, then the official must then stand trial in the Senate.If a two-thirds supermajority of the Senate votes to convict the official, the official is immediately removed from office. In addition, the Senate may also vote to forbid the official from holding any federal office in the future. While Congress has no power to impose criminal penalties, such as prison or fines, impeached and convicted officials may subsequently be tried and punished in the courts if they have committed criminal acts. The specific grounds for impeachment set by the Constitution are, â€Å"treason, bribery, and other high crimes and misdemeanors.† In order to be impeached and removed from office, the House and Senate must find that the official had committed at least one of these acts. What are Treason and Bribery? The crime of treason is clearly defined by the Constitution in Article 3, Section 3, Clause 1: Treason against the United States, shall consist only in levying War against them, or in adhering to their Enemies, giving them Aid and Comfort. No Person shall be convicted of Treason unless on the Testimony of two Witnesses to the same overt Act, or on Confession in open Court.† The Congress shall have Power to declare the Punishment of Treason, but no Attainder of Treason shall work Corruption of Blood, or Forfeiture except during the Life of the Person attainted. In these two paragraphs, the Constitution empowers the United States Congress to specifically create the crime of treason. As a result, treason is prohibited by legislation passed by Congress as codified in the United States Code at 18 U.S.C.  § 2381, which states: Whoever, owing allegiance to the United States, levies war against them or adheres to their enemies, giving them aid and comfort within the United States or elsewhere, is guilty of treason and shall suffer death, or shall be imprisoned not less than five years and fined under this title but not less than $10,000; and shall be incapable of holding any office under the United States. The Constitution’s requirement that a conviction for treason requires the supporting testimony of two witnesses comes from the British Treason Act 1695. Bribery is not defined in the Constitution. However, bribery has long been recognized in English and American common law as an act in which a person gives any official of the government money, gifts, or services to influence that official’s behavior in office. To date, no federal official has faced impeachment based on grounds of treason. While one federal judge was impeached and removed from the bench for advocating  in favor of succession and serving as a judge for the Confederacy during the Civil War, the impeachment was based on charges of refusing to hold court as sworn, rather than treason. Only two officials—both federal judges—have faced impeachment based on charges that specifically involved bribery or accepting gifts from litigants and both were removed from office. All of the other impeachment proceedings held against all federal officials to date have been based on charges of â€Å"high crimes and misdemeanors.† What are High Crimes and Misdemeanors? The term â€Å"high crimes† is often assumed to mean â€Å"felonies.† However, felonies are major crimes, while misdemeanors are less serious crimes. So under this interpretation, â€Å"high crimes and misdemeanors† would refer to any crime, which is not the case. Where Did the Term Come From? At the Constitutional Convention in 1787, the framers of the Constitution viewed impeachment to be an essential part of the system of separation of powers providing each of the three branches of government ways to check the powers of the other branches. Impeachment, they reasoned, would give the legislative branch one means of checking the power of the executive branch. Many of the framers considered Congress’ power to impeach federal judges to be of great importance since they would be appointed for life. However, some of the framers opposed providing for the impeachment of executive branch officials, because the power of the president could be checked every four years by the American people through the electoral process. In the end, James Madison of Virginia convinced a majority of the delegates that being able to replace a president only once every four years did not adequately check the powers of a president who became physically unable to serve or abused the executive powers. As Madison argued, â€Å"loss of capacity, or corruption . . . might be fatal to the republic† if the president could be replaced only through an election. The delegates then considered the grounds for impeachment. A select committee of delegates recommended â€Å"treason or bribery† as the only grounds. However, George Mason of Virginia, feeling that bribery and treason were only two of the many ways a president could willfully harm the republic, proposed adding â€Å"maladministration† to the list of impeachable offenses. James Madison argued that â€Å"maladministration† was so vague that it might allow Congress to remove presidents based purely on a political or ideological bias. This, argued Madison, would violate the separation of powers by giving the legislative branch total power over the executive branch. George Mason agreed with Madison and proposed â€Å"high crimes and misdemeanors against the state.† In the end, the convention reached a compromise and adopted â€Å"treason, bribery, or other high crimes and misdemeanors† as it appears in the Constitution today. In the Federalist Papers, Alexander Hamilton explained the concept of impeachment to the people, defining impeachable offenses as â€Å"those offences which proceed from the misconduct of public men, or in other words from the abuse or violation of some public trust. They are of a nature which may with peculiar propriety be denominated political, as they relate chiefly to injuries done immediately to the society itself.† According to the History, Arts, and Archives of the House of Representatives, impeachment proceedings against federal officials have been initiated more than 60 times since the Constitution was ratified in 1792. Of those, fewer than 20 have resulted in actual impeachment and only eight – all federal judges – have been convicted by the Senate and removed from office. The â€Å"high crimes and misdemeanors† alleged to have been  committed by the impeached judges have included using their position for financial gain, showing overt favoritism to litigants, income tax evasion, the disclosure of confidential information, unlawfully charging people with contempt of court, filing false expense reports, and habitual drunkenness. To date, only three cases of impeachment have involved presidents: Andrew  Johnson in 1868, Richard Nixon in 1974, and Bill Clinton in 1998. While none of them were convicted in the Senate and removed from office through impeachment, their cases help reveal Congress’ likely interpretation of â€Å"high crimes and misdemeanors.† Andrew Johnson As the lone U.S. Senator from a Southern state to remain loyal to the Union during the Civil War, Andrew Johnson was chosen by President Abraham Lincoln to be his vice-presidential running mate in the 1864 election. Lincoln had believed Johnson, as vice president, would help in negotiating with the South. However, shortly after taking over the presidency due to  Lincoln’s assassination in 1865, Johnson, a Democrat, ran into trouble with the Republican-dominated Congress over the Reconstruction of the South. As fast as Congress passed Reconstruction legislation, Johnson would veto it. Just as quickly, Congress would override his veto. The growing political friction came to a head when Congress, over Johnson’s veto, passed the long ago repealed Tenure of Office Act, which required the president to get the approval  of Congress to fire any executive branch appointee that had been confirmed by Congress. Never one to back down to Congress, Johnson immediately fried Republican secretary of war, Edwin Stanton. Though Stanton’s firing clearly violated the Tenure of Office Act, Johnson simply stated that the considered the act to be unconstitutional. In response, the House passed 11 articles of impeachment against Johnson as follows: Eight for violations of the Tenure of Office Act;One for using improper channels to send orders to executive branch officers;One for conspiring against Congress by publicly stating that Congress did not truly represent the Southern states; andOne for failure to enforce various provisions of the Reconstruction Acts. The Senate, however, voted on only three of the charges, finding Johnson not guilty by a single vote in each case. While the charges against Johnson are considered to have been politically motivated and not worthy of impeachment today, they serve as an example of actions that have been interpreted as â€Å"high crimes and misdemeanors.† Richard Nixon Shortly after Republican President Richard Nixon had easily won re-election to a second term in 1972, it was revealed that during the election, persons with ties to the Nixon campaign had broken into the Democratic Party national headquarters at the Watergate Hotel in Washington, D.C. While it was never proven that Nixon had known about or ordered the Watergate burglary, the famed Watergate tapes – voice recordings of Oval Office conversations – would confirm that Nixon had personally attempted to obstruct the Justice Department’s Watergate investigation. On the tapes, Nixon is heard suggesting paying the burglars â€Å"hush money† and ordering the FBI and CIA to influence the investigation in his favor. On July 27, 1974, the House Judiciary Committee passed three articles of impeachment charging Nixon with obstruction of justice, abuse of power, and contempt of Congress by his refusal to honor the committee’s requests to produce related documents. While never admitting having a role in either the burglary or the cover-up, Nixon resigned on August 8, 1974, before the full House voted on the articles of impeachment against him. â€Å"By taking this action,† he said in a televised address from the Oval Office, â€Å"I hope that I will have hastened the start of the process of healing which is so desperately needed in America.† Nixon’s vice president and successor, President Gerald Ford eventually pardoned Nixon for any crimes he may have committed while in office. Interestingly, the Judiciary Committee had refused to vote on a proposed article of impeachment charging Nixon with tax evasion because the members did not consider it to be an impeachable offense. The committee based its opinion of a special House staff report titled, Constitutional Grounds for Presidential Impeachment, which concluded, â€Å"Not all presidential misconduct is sufficient to constitute grounds for impeachment. . . . Because impeachment of a President is a grave step for the nation, it is predicated only upon conduct seriously incompatible with either the constitutional form and principles of our government or the proper performance of constitutional duties of the presidential office.† Bill Clinton First elected in 1992, President Bill Clinton was reelected in 1996. Scandal in Clinton’s administration began during his first term when the Justice Department appointed an independent counsel to investigate the president’s involvement in â€Å"Whitewater,† a failed land development investment deal that had taken place in Arkansas some 20 years earlier.   The Whitewater investigation blossomed to include scandals including Clinton’s questionable firing of members of the White House travel office, referred to as â€Å"Travelgate,† the misuse of confidential FBI records, and of course, Clinton’s infamous illicit affair with White House intern Monica Lewinsky. In 1998, a report to the House Judiciary Committee from Independent Counsel Kenneth Starr listed 11  potentially impeachable offenses, all related only to the Lewinsky scandal. The Judiciary Committee passed four articles of impeachment accusing Clinton of: Perjury in his testimony before a grand jury assembled by Starr;Providing â€Å"perjurious, false and misleading testimony† in a separate lawsuit related to the Lewinsky affair;Obstruction of justice in an attempt to â€Å"delay, impede, cover up and conceal the existence† of evidence; andAbuse and misuse of presidential powers by lying to the public, misinforming his cabinet and White House staff to gain their public support, wrongly claiming executive privilege, and refusing to respond to the committee’s questions. Legal and constitutional experts who testified at the Judiciary Committee hearing gave differing opinions of what â€Å"high crimes and misdemeanors† might be. Experts called by congressional Democrats testified that none of Clinton’s alleged acts amounted to â€Å"high crimes and misdemeanors† as envisioned by the framers of the Constitution. These experts cited Yale Law School professor Charles L. Black’s 1974 book, Impeachment: A Handbook, in which he argued that impeaching a president effectively overturns an election and thus the will of the people. As a result, Black reasoned, presidents should be impeached and removed from office only if proven guilty of â€Å"serious assaults on the integrity of the processes of government,† or for â€Å"such crimes as would so stain a president as to make his continuance in office dangerous to public order.† Black’s book cites two examples of acts that, while federal crimes, would not warrant the impeachment of a president: transporting a minor across state lines for â€Å"immoral purposes† and obstructing justice by helping a White House staff member conceal marijuana. On the other hand, experts called by congressional Republicans argued that in his acts related to the Lewinsky affair, President Clinton had violated his oath to uphold the laws and failed to faithfully carry out his duties as the government’s chief law enforcement officer. In the Senate trial, where 67 votes are required to remove an impeached official from office, only 50 Senators voted to remove Clinton on charges of obstruction of justice and only 45 Senators voted to remove him on the charge of perjury. Like Andrew Johnson a century before him, Clinton was acquitted by the Senate. Last Thoughts on ‘High Crimes and Misdemeanors’ In 1970, then-Representative Gerald Ford, who would become president after the resignation of Richard Nixon in 1974, made a notable statement about the charges of â€Å"high crimes and misdemeanors† in impeachment. After several failed attempts to convince the House to impeach a liberal Supreme Court justice, Ford stated that â€Å"an impeachable offense is whatever a majority of the House of Representatives considers it to be at a given moment in history.† Ford reasoned that â€Å"there are few fixed principles among the handful of precedents.† According to constitutional lawyers, Ford was both right and wrong. He was right in the sense that the Constitution does give the House the exclusive power to initiate impeachment. The vote of the House to issue articles of impeachment cannot be challenged in the courts. However, the Constitution does not give Congress the power to remove officials from office due to political or ideological disagreements. In order to ensure the integrity of the separation of powers, the framers of the Constitution intended that Congress should use its impeachment powers only when executive officials had committed â€Å"treason, bribery, or other high crimes and misdemeanors† which substantially damaged the integrity and effectiveness of government.